Retrieval
Retrieval in Memory
Howard Eichenbaum defines retrieval as “the process of searching for and finding a stored memory” (Eichenbaum 272). After the work is done in consolidation to solidify learning into long-term stores, retrieval is the process which brings stored memories back into working memory as needed for use or further consolidation. Retrieval of long-term storage requires cues, or the triggering of information closely linked to the stored memory through a connecting word, thought, or idea. Cues act as signposts which trigger recall of memory through similarity or connectivity. Retrieval and cues are important for transfer because these are the components of the process which brings stored memory back into working memory. Royer emphasizes the significance of the retrieval process when he argues that we need to seek ways to "increase the probability that relevant material learned in the classroom will be retrieved when the individual is faced with a particular real-world problem" (62). In other words, Royer is arguing for greater efficiency of cues which can be built during class time and through course assignments. According to cognitive studies the most effective way to do as Royer is suggesting is through forming greater synaptic connection, strengthening the current neural pathways through practicing retrieval, and increasing the number of cues connected to any given memory. This is because recollection is determined by “context, by recent use, and by the number and vividness of cues that you have linked to the knowledge and can call upon to bring it forth” (Brown, Roediger, McDainel 76). In order to do this, students basically need to “work with memory” repeatedly and in various ways. While I will write more in a later section regarding what the understandings of retrieval and memory mean in the classroom, what can be understood now is that a one-time interaction will not necessarily solidify the knowledge into long-term memory or strengthen pathways enough to improve retrieval. Instead, students must engage continuously and using great effort to store information in a way that is conducive to retrieval. Information stored using greater synaptic connectivity and is frequently exercised will be recalled with greater ease when cued. These stronger connections and synaptic pathways, forged between prior and new information, can be made through exercises that rely on reflection (recalling to mind prior memory) and metacognition (contemplation and awareness of one's own thoughts or reflections). Both of these activities “work with memory” in a way that strengthens pathways, increases retrieval cues, and, by doing so, improves transfer. These concepts and how they apply to the classroom setting will be discussed in greater detail in a later section.
Cues
Retrieval cues help students link to connections of information. In a sense, cues act as hyperlinks which connect students to a wide array of stored knowledge. Once accessed, that stored knowledge can be transferred or used in new contexts and situations to make meanings, decisions, and form understandings. Since cues connect students to memory stores, they are very important for transfer. Dana Driscoll confirms this notion when she writes, “nearly all research on writing transfer indicates that if students fail to recognize similar features in diverse writing contexts and tasks, then the transfer of writing skills will most likely be unsuccessful” (“Connected, Disconnected, or Uncertain”). In other words, when students fail to see connections, often because of lack of cuing, then they cannot access those long-term stores and transfer cannot occur. Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel argue that we must create mental models that can become “interconnected networks of knowledge” (83) which multiply retrieval cues and improve the versatility of how the knowledge can be used in the future. These interconnected networks of knowledge can be made by: (1) situating the knowledge into memory in the first place; (2) making connections with prior knowledge; (3) practicing retrieval to strengthen synaptic connections and improve the success of retrieval cues (Brown, Roediger, McDaniel 82). Once knowledge is situated, connected, and strengthened through effortful recall, stored memory can return to working memory to be remade and become useful in future contexts.
Howard Eichenbaum defines retrieval as “the process of searching for and finding a stored memory” (Eichenbaum 272). After the work is done in consolidation to solidify learning into long-term stores, retrieval is the process which brings stored memories back into working memory as needed for use or further consolidation. Retrieval of long-term storage requires cues, or the triggering of information closely linked to the stored memory through a connecting word, thought, or idea. Cues act as signposts which trigger recall of memory through similarity or connectivity. Retrieval and cues are important for transfer because these are the components of the process which brings stored memory back into working memory. Royer emphasizes the significance of the retrieval process when he argues that we need to seek ways to "increase the probability that relevant material learned in the classroom will be retrieved when the individual is faced with a particular real-world problem" (62). In other words, Royer is arguing for greater efficiency of cues which can be built during class time and through course assignments. According to cognitive studies the most effective way to do as Royer is suggesting is through forming greater synaptic connection, strengthening the current neural pathways through practicing retrieval, and increasing the number of cues connected to any given memory. This is because recollection is determined by “context, by recent use, and by the number and vividness of cues that you have linked to the knowledge and can call upon to bring it forth” (Brown, Roediger, McDainel 76). In order to do this, students basically need to “work with memory” repeatedly and in various ways. While I will write more in a later section regarding what the understandings of retrieval and memory mean in the classroom, what can be understood now is that a one-time interaction will not necessarily solidify the knowledge into long-term memory or strengthen pathways enough to improve retrieval. Instead, students must engage continuously and using great effort to store information in a way that is conducive to retrieval. Information stored using greater synaptic connectivity and is frequently exercised will be recalled with greater ease when cued. These stronger connections and synaptic pathways, forged between prior and new information, can be made through exercises that rely on reflection (recalling to mind prior memory) and metacognition (contemplation and awareness of one's own thoughts or reflections). Both of these activities “work with memory” in a way that strengthens pathways, increases retrieval cues, and, by doing so, improves transfer. These concepts and how they apply to the classroom setting will be discussed in greater detail in a later section.
Cues
Retrieval cues help students link to connections of information. In a sense, cues act as hyperlinks which connect students to a wide array of stored knowledge. Once accessed, that stored knowledge can be transferred or used in new contexts and situations to make meanings, decisions, and form understandings. Since cues connect students to memory stores, they are very important for transfer. Dana Driscoll confirms this notion when she writes, “nearly all research on writing transfer indicates that if students fail to recognize similar features in diverse writing contexts and tasks, then the transfer of writing skills will most likely be unsuccessful” (“Connected, Disconnected, or Uncertain”). In other words, when students fail to see connections, often because of lack of cuing, then they cannot access those long-term stores and transfer cannot occur. Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel argue that we must create mental models that can become “interconnected networks of knowledge” (83) which multiply retrieval cues and improve the versatility of how the knowledge can be used in the future. These interconnected networks of knowledge can be made by: (1) situating the knowledge into memory in the first place; (2) making connections with prior knowledge; (3) practicing retrieval to strengthen synaptic connections and improve the success of retrieval cues (Brown, Roediger, McDaniel 82). Once knowledge is situated, connected, and strengthened through effortful recall, stored memory can return to working memory to be remade and become useful in future contexts.