A Cognitive learning definition of Transfer
As a means of getting to the root of examining the process of transfer, I decided to search for a cognitive science model for learning; one that really exposed the cognitive structures that underlie how transfer "works" in the brain. Ultimately, my research brought me to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model (1968) as the most appropriate for defining learning and transfer. I have made subtle modifications in this model as a means of updating it to correspond to the latest research. However, modern research on memory and learning still very much support the processing that this model outlines. This model in no way is meant to replace the definitions already produced in transfer studies, for each, I believe, is valuable in shining light to different aspects of transfer and learning. Rather, this model is meant to serve as a description of the neuro-cognitive structures which may underlie many of the definitions and processes already well articulated in transfer studies. My hope is that this model may more accurately depict the challenges that exist for transfer in the digital age.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model for Learning (figure 1)
All learning begins with the environment which elicits sensual stimuli to be taken into cognitive processing. The environment is rich with tastes, sounds, textures, colors, and smells which require cognitive processing to make sense. As students engage with the environment, they use their senses to receive, or take in, information that travels directly to short-term memory. Once in short-term memory, then working memory can begin to process the information through critical activities such as encoding, rehearsing, synthesizing, consolidating, etc. Short-term memory exists as one part of working memory which is from where retrieval cues are sent, decisions are made, and transfer occurs. While working memory is important, since that is where all of the work for learning and transfer happens, long-term memory stores processed information in organizational structures for later retrieval and use. Short-term memory emphasizes the “perceptual qualities” of sensory data, whereas long-term memory emphasizes “meanings” (Eichenbaum 407). The Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) model argues that working memory and long-term memory work in succession (Eichenbaum 405). Short-term memory (a component of working memory) provides a temporary space to rehearse and manipulate information taken in through the sensory organs with the goal of logging the information into long-term memory (Eichenbaum 405). Once information is processed and logged into long-term memory (or forgotten during short-term processing or by lack of use in long-term storage), then that information can be retrieved for future use or referral through cues of association. When new information comes into short-term memory, working memory accesses long-term stores with retrieval cues and brings prior knowledge to mix with new knowledge (transfer). At that point, prior knowledge, being flexible, can be remade in response to new knowledge. This is when knowledge can be replaced, merged, synthesized, reconsolidated, or recontextualized (Nowacek) and used in new contexts and situations (transfer). Then, what is found meaningful in response to these processes can be sent back "updated" to long-term stores which adds onto existing cognitive structures through synaptic connections (building onto memory). Transfer, then, is a process of bringing stored memory into working memory to engage with new information, often being altered in some way, and then can be used in new contexts and situations. In this light, working memory plays a critical role in facilitating transfer.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model for Learning (figure 1)
All learning begins with the environment which elicits sensual stimuli to be taken into cognitive processing. The environment is rich with tastes, sounds, textures, colors, and smells which require cognitive processing to make sense. As students engage with the environment, they use their senses to receive, or take in, information that travels directly to short-term memory. Once in short-term memory, then working memory can begin to process the information through critical activities such as encoding, rehearsing, synthesizing, consolidating, etc. Short-term memory exists as one part of working memory which is from where retrieval cues are sent, decisions are made, and transfer occurs. While working memory is important, since that is where all of the work for learning and transfer happens, long-term memory stores processed information in organizational structures for later retrieval and use. Short-term memory emphasizes the “perceptual qualities” of sensory data, whereas long-term memory emphasizes “meanings” (Eichenbaum 407). The Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) model argues that working memory and long-term memory work in succession (Eichenbaum 405). Short-term memory (a component of working memory) provides a temporary space to rehearse and manipulate information taken in through the sensory organs with the goal of logging the information into long-term memory (Eichenbaum 405). Once information is processed and logged into long-term memory (or forgotten during short-term processing or by lack of use in long-term storage), then that information can be retrieved for future use or referral through cues of association. When new information comes into short-term memory, working memory accesses long-term stores with retrieval cues and brings prior knowledge to mix with new knowledge (transfer). At that point, prior knowledge, being flexible, can be remade in response to new knowledge. This is when knowledge can be replaced, merged, synthesized, reconsolidated, or recontextualized (Nowacek) and used in new contexts and situations (transfer). Then, what is found meaningful in response to these processes can be sent back "updated" to long-term stores which adds onto existing cognitive structures through synaptic connections (building onto memory). Transfer, then, is a process of bringing stored memory into working memory to engage with new information, often being altered in some way, and then can be used in new contexts and situations. In this light, working memory plays a critical role in facilitating transfer.
* This model is an adaptation for the Atkinson-Shiffrin model (Eichenbaum, Memory & Learning, 405).
Working Memory
To better understand the role of working memory, it is important to understand the three primary responsibilities it has. First, working memory acts as a phonological loop which supports subvocal speech (which is what is used for things like silent reading and metacognitive awareness) by "rehearsing about two seconds duration of auditory verbal information via the parietal cortex (Eichenbaum 415). Second, working memory acts as a "visuospatial sketchpad" that allows us to hold images we have seen or heard described via the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Eichenbaum 415). Lastly, working memory acts as the "central executive" which controls and manages the information held in short-term memory and the processes which respond to it via the prefrontal cortex (Eichenbaum 415). Working memory, then, is the area of the brain where we process information and work with memory (Eichenbaum 399). However, working memory has limited storage capacity and only concerns itself with items existing in consciousness. McCutcheon describes the roles of working memory and long-term memory in this way: "The items already activated within the capacity-limited short-term working memory (STWM) then function as retrieval cues for those parts of long-term memory to which they relate. Thus, the information available in long-term working memory (LTWM) is of two types: those items activated in STWM and those items in long-term memory that can be reached via the retrieval structures" (62). For writing, this means that the vast amount of knowledge that can be accessed in long-term memory for use in writing must be called upon through the limited space provided by short-term working memory (McCutcheon 61). As such, working memory must function as efficiently as possible to encourage transfer. Using the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, we can see that some of the important operations involved in transfer include receiving, processing, retrieval, and remaking. A closer look at these can help us gain a deeper understanding of how each works to facilitate learning.
Working Memory
To better understand the role of working memory, it is important to understand the three primary responsibilities it has. First, working memory acts as a phonological loop which supports subvocal speech (which is what is used for things like silent reading and metacognitive awareness) by "rehearsing about two seconds duration of auditory verbal information via the parietal cortex (Eichenbaum 415). Second, working memory acts as a "visuospatial sketchpad" that allows us to hold images we have seen or heard described via the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Eichenbaum 415). Lastly, working memory acts as the "central executive" which controls and manages the information held in short-term memory and the processes which respond to it via the prefrontal cortex (Eichenbaum 415). Working memory, then, is the area of the brain where we process information and work with memory (Eichenbaum 399). However, working memory has limited storage capacity and only concerns itself with items existing in consciousness. McCutcheon describes the roles of working memory and long-term memory in this way: "The items already activated within the capacity-limited short-term working memory (STWM) then function as retrieval cues for those parts of long-term memory to which they relate. Thus, the information available in long-term working memory (LTWM) is of two types: those items activated in STWM and those items in long-term memory that can be reached via the retrieval structures" (62). For writing, this means that the vast amount of knowledge that can be accessed in long-term memory for use in writing must be called upon through the limited space provided by short-term working memory (McCutcheon 61). As such, working memory must function as efficiently as possible to encourage transfer. Using the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, we can see that some of the important operations involved in transfer include receiving, processing, retrieval, and remaking. A closer look at these can help us gain a deeper understanding of how each works to facilitate learning.