RECOMMENDATIONS from cognitive studies
One limitation in transfer studies for composition is the deconstructive approach that has been taken to understand transfer. While deconstruction and dissection can tell us much about the many complex processes instituted to bring about transfer, we also need not loose sight of the bigger picture. We can't look at transfer apart from learning, and the many practices which that entails, since all processes are interconnected. When learning is improved, so to is memory, retrieval, and transfer. In their book, Making it Stick, researchers Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel sumarize what science supports as the most effective methods for learning. Many of their findings are counter-intuitive to the learning habits frequently employed. Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel write, “rereading and massed practice of a skill or new knowledge are by far the preferred study strategies of learners of all stripes, but they’re also among the least productive (such as repetition, cramming, rereading, etc.)” (3). These methods feel productive but are actually ineffective for long-term understanding and memory. This confirms that we (and students) are "poor judges of when we are learning well" (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 3). Rereading and massed practice are frequently preferred by students because they "feel" easier and more productive, when, in fact, cognitive studies show the opposite to be true; ”Learning that is easy is like writing in sand, here today and gone tomorrow” (Make it stick, 3). Instead, research supports effortful retrieval practice along with varied and interleaved learning.
Retrieval
Practicing retrieval is important for learning as it strengthens synaptic connections making them more efficient and accessible over longer periods of time. When people lose knowledge (forget something) it is usually because the synaptic connection has grown weak overtime and eventually was lost due to unuse. The saying "use it or lose it" rings true for memory. It is helpful to think of synaptic connections similarly to muscles where they grow strong when exercised and weak when neglected. Encouraging practiced retrieval in classes prompts students to use those synaptic connections to keep them strong and functioning in peak condition. The connections students are using in memory are the ones that will grow strong over time. Although, typically, students do not prefer retrieval practices since they feel effortful and unproductive, but studies are clear that “retrieval feels harder but the effort produces longer lasting learning and enables more versatile application of it in later settings” (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 4). Effortful retrieval strengthens memory and “makes the learning more pliable” which leads to re-consolidation where memories are updated with new information and connected to recent learning (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 4). Some of the suggestions offered by Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel for practicing retrieval include "trying to solve the problem before being taught the solution" (4), drill and recall of memorized learning, frequent quizzes (42), and reflection (66). Solving problems prior to learning the solution prompts students to be creative and try to make sense of the material within their current cognitive structures. Drill and recall practices of memorized learning help to keep connections strong and impede forgetting, although this needs to be continued long-term to maintain the information in memory (not cramming before a test). Quizzes, especially in essay or short answer form, "strengthens learning and retention (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 42). Reflection is one of the most powerful learning tools for retrieval practice and strengthening synaptic connections. Through reflection students can improve recall and also facilitate semantic memory formation (which is more easily transferred in situations that exist out of similar contextual features). Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel assert “One difference, perhaps, between those who do and don’t (learn) is whether they have cultivated the habit of reflection. Reflection is a form of retrieval practice (what happened? What did I do? How did it work out?), enhanced with elaboration (what would I do differently next time?)” (66). Similar to reflection, students should also be prompted to “extract the key ideas from new material and organize them into a mental model and connect that model to prior knowledge" (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 6). Not only is finding prior knowledge that connects to new knowledge effective for building transfer capabilities, but beginning with new knowledge and connecting it backward into prior knowledge is part of the process of transfer as well.
Varied and interleaved Practice
Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel recommend that learning and retrieval practice be varied and interleaved for maximum effects. A study done by M.K. Goode, L. Geraci, and H.L Roedigger tested the effects of varied practice on cognitive learning by splitting study participants into two groups: one that practiced a single anagram repeatedly, and the second group practiced multiple anagrams (varied). After the practice period, the participants were given the anagram practiced by the other group to see how they would perform. The results of the study found that the participants that had varied practice were better able to transfer their knowledge and experience of previous anagrams to a new one, than the group who consistently practiced the single anagram (Goode, Geraci, and Roediger 662-666). Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel report that "varied practice helps learners build a broad schema, an ability to assess changing conditions and adjust responses to fit" (65). As cognitive researchers attest, varied practice can help students gain larger conceptualizations of material that is more easily transferred to new contexts.
Similarly, interleaving practice can have strong yields for improving long-term memory storage. Interleaving practice means having students switch between practicing "two or more subjects or skills" (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 49). An example might be a student switching between their composition paper, discussion post, and reading assignments during one homework period. Although this interleaving may feel less productive (and is in the short term), studies have found that this increases long-term memory and makes learning more flexible. A mathematics study was done by Rohrer and Taylor in 2007 which had one group of students practice their computing problems in clusters (or groups of four examples of the same type of problem) and the second group solved their problems in interleaved formation (mixed). In the first test (immediately following the practice period), new, but similar, problems were given and the clustered group scored higher. However, when tested again a week later the cluster group scored much lower (showing that clustered practice, much like cramming for a test, only helped short term memory storage and knowledge was soon forgotten) and the interleaved group scored higher (Rohrer and Taylor 481-498). Brown, Roediger, and McDaniels assert, "Arguably, interleaving and variation help learners reach beyond memorization to higher levels of conceptual learning (Semantic) and application, building more rounded, deep, and durable learning” (65). This kind of durability in learning improves students retention (47) and "abilities of discrimination and induction and the versatility with which we can apply the learning in new settings at a later date (transfer)" (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniels 101). Although English composition courses deal primarily with larger conceptualizations of knowledge, rather than the factual knowledge that is common in mathematics and other fields of study, building a more flexible memory through varied and interleaved learning can help prime students for transfer which certainly applies in the composition classroom. With a clearer understanding of what transfer studies and cognitive studies suggest for "teaching for transfer," I would like to proceed to my recommendations for a composition pedagogy that is focused on transfer while understanding the shifts of memory occurring during the digital age.
Retrieval
Practicing retrieval is important for learning as it strengthens synaptic connections making them more efficient and accessible over longer periods of time. When people lose knowledge (forget something) it is usually because the synaptic connection has grown weak overtime and eventually was lost due to unuse. The saying "use it or lose it" rings true for memory. It is helpful to think of synaptic connections similarly to muscles where they grow strong when exercised and weak when neglected. Encouraging practiced retrieval in classes prompts students to use those synaptic connections to keep them strong and functioning in peak condition. The connections students are using in memory are the ones that will grow strong over time. Although, typically, students do not prefer retrieval practices since they feel effortful and unproductive, but studies are clear that “retrieval feels harder but the effort produces longer lasting learning and enables more versatile application of it in later settings” (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 4). Effortful retrieval strengthens memory and “makes the learning more pliable” which leads to re-consolidation where memories are updated with new information and connected to recent learning (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 4). Some of the suggestions offered by Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel for practicing retrieval include "trying to solve the problem before being taught the solution" (4), drill and recall of memorized learning, frequent quizzes (42), and reflection (66). Solving problems prior to learning the solution prompts students to be creative and try to make sense of the material within their current cognitive structures. Drill and recall practices of memorized learning help to keep connections strong and impede forgetting, although this needs to be continued long-term to maintain the information in memory (not cramming before a test). Quizzes, especially in essay or short answer form, "strengthens learning and retention (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 42). Reflection is one of the most powerful learning tools for retrieval practice and strengthening synaptic connections. Through reflection students can improve recall and also facilitate semantic memory formation (which is more easily transferred in situations that exist out of similar contextual features). Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel assert “One difference, perhaps, between those who do and don’t (learn) is whether they have cultivated the habit of reflection. Reflection is a form of retrieval practice (what happened? What did I do? How did it work out?), enhanced with elaboration (what would I do differently next time?)” (66). Similar to reflection, students should also be prompted to “extract the key ideas from new material and organize them into a mental model and connect that model to prior knowledge" (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 6). Not only is finding prior knowledge that connects to new knowledge effective for building transfer capabilities, but beginning with new knowledge and connecting it backward into prior knowledge is part of the process of transfer as well.
Varied and interleaved Practice
Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel recommend that learning and retrieval practice be varied and interleaved for maximum effects. A study done by M.K. Goode, L. Geraci, and H.L Roedigger tested the effects of varied practice on cognitive learning by splitting study participants into two groups: one that practiced a single anagram repeatedly, and the second group practiced multiple anagrams (varied). After the practice period, the participants were given the anagram practiced by the other group to see how they would perform. The results of the study found that the participants that had varied practice were better able to transfer their knowledge and experience of previous anagrams to a new one, than the group who consistently practiced the single anagram (Goode, Geraci, and Roediger 662-666). Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel report that "varied practice helps learners build a broad schema, an ability to assess changing conditions and adjust responses to fit" (65). As cognitive researchers attest, varied practice can help students gain larger conceptualizations of material that is more easily transferred to new contexts.
Similarly, interleaving practice can have strong yields for improving long-term memory storage. Interleaving practice means having students switch between practicing "two or more subjects or skills" (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel 49). An example might be a student switching between their composition paper, discussion post, and reading assignments during one homework period. Although this interleaving may feel less productive (and is in the short term), studies have found that this increases long-term memory and makes learning more flexible. A mathematics study was done by Rohrer and Taylor in 2007 which had one group of students practice their computing problems in clusters (or groups of four examples of the same type of problem) and the second group solved their problems in interleaved formation (mixed). In the first test (immediately following the practice period), new, but similar, problems were given and the clustered group scored higher. However, when tested again a week later the cluster group scored much lower (showing that clustered practice, much like cramming for a test, only helped short term memory storage and knowledge was soon forgotten) and the interleaved group scored higher (Rohrer and Taylor 481-498). Brown, Roediger, and McDaniels assert, "Arguably, interleaving and variation help learners reach beyond memorization to higher levels of conceptual learning (Semantic) and application, building more rounded, deep, and durable learning” (65). This kind of durability in learning improves students retention (47) and "abilities of discrimination and induction and the versatility with which we can apply the learning in new settings at a later date (transfer)" (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniels 101). Although English composition courses deal primarily with larger conceptualizations of knowledge, rather than the factual knowledge that is common in mathematics and other fields of study, building a more flexible memory through varied and interleaved learning can help prime students for transfer which certainly applies in the composition classroom. With a clearer understanding of what transfer studies and cognitive studies suggest for "teaching for transfer," I would like to proceed to my recommendations for a composition pedagogy that is focused on transfer while understanding the shifts of memory occurring during the digital age.